9 of 12
Nations and regions voted Leave
Every region of England outside London, and Wales. London, Scotland and Northern Ireland voted Remain.
Electoral Commission
Home / Democracy
Democracy restored
Who makes your laws after Brexit
How EU laws are made, what happened when voters said no, what Brussels pays its politicians, and how UK law became supreme again.
Democracy restored
You can now vote out the people who make your laws
In the EU, new laws can only be proposed by the European Commission. Its members are nominated by national governments, not elected by voters. In the UK, every law is made by MPs you elect and can remove at the next election.
EU law-making
Proposes laws European Commission, 27 nominated members
Amends and approves Council of ministers and European Parliament
Can voters remove the Commission? No direct vote
The Commission has the right of initiative under Article 17(2) of the EU Treaty. MEPs cannot propose a law themselves. Parliament confirms the Commission in one vote and can censure it, but has never done so successfully.
UK law-making today
Proposes laws Ministers and any elected MP
Amends and approves House of Commons and House of Lords
Can voters remove them? Yes, at every general election
The 2016 result was carried out, even though most MPs had campaigned the other way. That is what it means for the voters to have the final say.
When voters said no to the EU
Several times, when a country voted against an EU treaty, the response was a second vote after small changes, or a way round the result.
| Referendum | Result | What happened next |
|---|---|---|
| Denmark, Maastricht Treaty, 1992 | No, 50.7% | Second referendum in 1993 after Denmark was given four opt-outs. Yes, 56.7%. |
| Ireland, Nice Treaty, 2001 | No, 53.9% | Second referendum in 2002 with a declaration on Irish neutrality. Yes, 62.9%. |
| France and the Netherlands, EU Constitution, 2005 | No, 54.7% and 61.5% | The Constitution was dropped. Most of its content returned in the Lisbon Treaty, ratified by parliaments without a vote in either country. |
| Ireland, Lisbon Treaty, 2008 | No, 53.4% | Second referendum in 2009 after legal guarantees. Yes, 67.1%. |
| Greece, bailout terms, 2015 | No, 61.3% | Within days the Greek government accepted a bailout with stricter conditions than those voters had rejected. |
| Netherlands, EU–Ukraine agreement, 2016 | No, 61.0% | Ratified in 2017 after EU leaders added a legal clarification. |
Not every no was set aside. Denmark (2000) and Sweden (2003) voted against the euro, and those results stand. Turnout in the 2024 European Parliament elections was 50.7%. Sources: national electoral commissions; European Parliament; House of Commons Library.
2016: the people and Parliament
The country voted Leave. Three in four MPs had backed Remain.
The referendum put the question to voters directly. The result showed how far the House of Commons stood from the people who elect it.
LeaveRemain
VotersOfficial result
17.4 million Leave · 51.9%16.1 million Remain · 48.1%
ConstituenciesEstimated, of 650
About 410 Leave · 63%About 240 Remain · 37%
MPsDeclared position, of 650
159 Leave · 24.5%480 Remain · 73.8%
148 of 232
Labour-held seats voted Leave
Almost two in three of the seats Labour held at the time are estimated to have voted to leave.
Estimates by Professor Chris Hanretty
249 of 330
Conservative-held seats voted Leave
Three in four of the seats the Conservatives held at the time are estimated to have voted to leave.
Estimates by Professor Chris Hanretty
The seat figures are estimates, because votes were counted by council area and not by constituency. MPs' positions come from a Press Association survey taken before the vote; 11 MPs did not declare. In fairness: the Commons then voted by 498 to 114 in February 2017 to begin the exit process, and Britain left in 2020. Sources
Happening now
Rules without a vote: what "dynamic alignment" means
You don't have to rejoin to lose a say. Under the UK–EU "reset", the UK has agreed to follow EU rules in some areas and to keep following them as Brussels changes them.
What the UK gets
Fewer checks on food and farm exports to the EU
A link between UK and EU carbon markets
A chance to comment on new rules "decision-shaping"
These are real gains for exporters, and the agreement says so.
What the UK gives
Future EU rules apply automatically in the areas covered
No UK vote on those rules no minister, no MEP
The EU's court has the last word on EU law in disputes
A financial contribution to the EU for taking part
Under the planned European Partnership Bill, most new rules are expected to be brought in by ministers through regulations, not by an Act of Parliament each time.
July 2024
The scrutiny committee was abolished
The House of Commons committee that examined every EU law for 50 years was closed weeks after the 2024 election.
House of Commons
8 votes
How Britain went in
In 1972 the law taking the UK into Europe passed its key Commons vote by 309 to 301. There was no referendum.
Hansard, 17 February 1972
17.4 million
How Britain came out
In 2016 more people voted to leave than have ever voted for anything else in British history.
Electoral Commission
Sources: UK–EU Summit Common Understanding (May 2025); written evidence to the House of Lords European Affairs Committee inquiry on dynamic alignment (2026). The government says the arrangements bring down costs for business and that Parliament will scrutinise them. Sources
Who you would be paying for
Pay, pensions and protections in Brussels
Re-joining means paying towards the salaries and pensions of EU politicians and officials. Here are the published rates, set beside a UK MP.
| Role | Basic pay | Tax | Extras | Pension | Legal protection |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| European Commission President | €35,861 a month (~€430,000 a year) | EU tax of 8–45%, instead of national income tax | Residence allowance of 15% of salary; entertainment allowance | A pension for each year in office, even after one term. Up to 3 years of transitional pay at 40–65% of salary after leaving. | Immune from legal proceedings for official acts, for life |
| European Commissioner | €29,234 a month (~€351,000 a year) | EU tax of 8–45%, instead of national income tax | Residence allowance of 15% of salary; entertainment allowance | A pension for each year in office, even after one term. Up to 3 years of transitional pay after leaving. | Immune from legal proceedings for official acts, for life |
| Member of the European Parliament | €11,255 a month (~€135,000 a year) | EU tax; countries may add national tax | €4,950 a month flat-rate office allowance; €359 a day attendance allowance; up to €32,072 a month for staff | From 63, at 3.5% of salary per year served, up to 70%. Paid from the Parliament's budget, with no contribution from the MEP. | Immunity from arrest and prosecution in other EU countries, unless Parliament votes to lift it |
| UK Member of Parliament | £7,825 a month (£93,904 a year, from April 2025) | UK income tax, like everyone else | Office and staff costs reimbursed against receipts, published by IPSA | MPs pay contributions into their pension scheme | No immunity from criminal law. Privilege covers only what is said in Parliament |
Fact check: "tax-free"
Not tax-free, but not taxed like you
EU pay is taxed, but by the EU at its own rates. Commissioners and officials pay no national income tax, and the office and daily allowances are flat-rate payments that are not taxed.
Fact check: "gold-plated"
Pensions without contributions
MEPs build a pension worth up to 70% of salary without paying into it. Commissioners qualify for a pension after a single term, on top of up to three years of transitional pay.
Also on the bill
Two parliament buildings
The European Parliament moves between Brussels and Strasbourg every month. The EU's auditors put the cost at €114m a year. Ending it needs every EU country to agree.
Commission salaries are set by Council Regulation (EU) 2016/300 as a percentage of the top EU civil service grade (€25,986.17 a month from 1 July 2025): 112.5% for Commissioners and 138% for the President. Immunities are set out in Protocol 7 to the EU Treaties. Sources
Sovereignty delivered
Who has the final say
Before Brexit, EU law sat above Acts of Parliament. Today Parliament is the highest law-making authority in the UK.
Before: EU law primacy
EU Treaties and EU law Court of Justice, Luxembourg
Acts of the UK Parliament could be disapplied
UK regulations
Where the two conflicted, EU law won (European Communities Act 1972, s.2(4); Factortame, 1990).
After: UK law supreme
Acts of the UK Parliament elected in the UK
UK regulations made under UK Acts
Treaties, including with the EU agreed by UK ministers
EU-derived rules that remain are now "assimilated law", which Parliament can keep, change or scrap.
Timeline: how control came home
The referendum
17.4 million people, 51.9% of voters, choose to leave on a 72.2% turnout.
EU (Withdrawal) Act 2018 2018 c. 16
Repeals the European Communities Act 1972 and copies EU rules into UK law so Parliament can then review them.
EU (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 2020 c. 1
Puts the Withdrawal Agreement into UK law. Section 38 affirms the sovereignty of Parliament.
The UK leaves the EU
UK MEPs and ministers leave EU institutions. A transition period begins.
Agriculture Act and Fisheries Act 2020
The UK replaces the Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy with its own systems.
Transition ends
The European Court of Justice no longer has jurisdiction over Great Britain. Free movement ends.
New trade and immigration systems
The Trade and Cooperation Agreement applies. A points-based immigration system starts for all countries.
Subsidy Control Act 2022 2022 c. 23
A UK system for public support to business replaces EU state aid rules.
First new trade deals in force
Free trade agreements with Australia and New Zealand, the first negotiated from scratch by the UK.
EU law supremacy abolished
The Retained EU Law (Revocation and Reform) Act 2023 ends the supremacy of EU law in UK law.
UK joins CPTPP
The UK becomes the first new member of the Indo-Pacific trade partnership.
Procurement Act 2023 in force
UK rules for public contracts, designed to be simpler for small firms, replace EU-derived regimes.
UK–India trade agreement signed
A deal with one of the world's fastest-growing large economies.
Get the facts in your inbox
Short, sourced updates when new figures are published. No spam, and you can unsubscribe at any time.